Echoes of Empire: Untangling the Past of Colonial Dominion in the Naga Hills

The history of the Naga Hills before the coming of colonial powers is a tapestry woven with distinctive threads of various tribes, each of which protected its own traditions and highly independent spirit. Situated in a difficult landscape of mountains and forests, these people lived on agriculture and a village-based lifestyle, untouched by the great empires that rose and fell around them. Their contacts with the neighboring kingdoms, like the Ahom in Assam and the Burmese, were a combination of trade and sporadic fighting, but consistent external domination was never achieved. This inbuilt love for independence and the intimidating terrain of their country would come to define their confrontation with the British Empire’s expanding influence.

Whispers of Contact: Early Encounters and the Seeds of Colonial Ambition (Early 19th Century)

The year 1832 is the beginning of the first pivotal point of contact between the British and the Nagas.
Captain Francis Jenkins and Lieutenant Robert Pemberton commanded an expedition with a significant contingent of Manipuri soldiers and laborers, whose goal was to cut a communication and trade passage between Manipur and Assam through the Angami Naga country. This first attempt, though, was anything but smooth. The hilly country and the strong resistance by the Naga tribes proved to be the first hurdles. Lieutenant Pemberton’s writings give a picture of the Nagas as strong people who had long withstood the plains kingdoms’ domination. From the Naga point of view, the sudden turn of a large foreign force was certainly viewed as threatening to their much-valued independence, prompting any resistance that began immediately. This first interaction, characterized by mutual suspicion and a clash of interests, laid the groundwork for the complex relationship that would follow. Between 1832 and 1850, the British launched a series of military expeditions into the Naga Hills, largely as a response to Naga raids on British-controlled territories in Assam.   These missions, aimed at suppressing what the British viewed as aggression, were frequently countered by fierce Naga warrior resistance to protect their native territories.

In 1845, there was an effort at creating peace through the signing of a non-aggression treaty between British officials and some Naga chiefs. However, this treaty was tenuous, with not all Naga tribes following its provisions, and raids persisted. These initial interactions highlighted the underlying conflict between the burgeoning British power and the strongly autonomous Naga tribes. The British, initially intent on exploration and consolidation of their current domains, started to shape their concept of the Naga people and the land, generally through the prism of their own colonial goals. Initial British descriptions were usually written by ethnographers, anthropologists, and administrators and were naturally influenced by the imperative to rationalize and serve British colonial aspirations in the area. With time, the British official perception of the Naga Hills changed, with some of the administration regarding the area as an unruly and troublesome region that stood in their way of communication and commerce with neighboring empires.

The Lure of the Hills: Reasons Behind British Interest in the Naga Hills

The British desire to establish control over the Naga Hills was fueled by a complex interplay of strategic, economic, and ideological factors that gained prominence throughout the 19th century.   Initially, a key motivation was the strategic importance of the region in establishing and securing overland communication and trade routes with Burma and potentially beyond.

British people saw the hill country inhabited by the Nagas as an integral part of channeling commercial and trade streams linking Bengal, Assam, and the empires to the east.
The plan to build a direct road through the valleys of Assam and Manipur that would, as a matter of course, cross Naga ground only strengthened the interest. With British rule consolidated on the Assam plains, the concern more and more shifted toward the defense of their current possessions and subjects against the continued raids conducted by different Naga tribes. The raids on the foothill and plain settlements caused loss of life, induced fear among those under British protection, and infringed upon the valuable extraction of colonial revenue. The British government’s occupation of land in the Naga hills and subsequent development of tea gardens therein only worsened the situation because such gardens were common victims of Naga attacks.  
Creation of the Naga Hills District (Assam) in 1866 was a direct fallout of this concern, and the main purpose was to discourage Naga intrusions and protect colonial economic interests in the Assam foothills and plains.

In addition to strategic and economic motives, the British also had a sense of moral duty, commonly known as the “civilizing mission,” which underlay their aspiration for domination of the Naga Hills. Some of the traditional Naga customs, including headhunting and tribal warfare, were considered by the British to be morally abhorrent and required to be stamped out. Headhunting, in particular, was often framed within colonial discourse as a primitive “craving for skulls”. This moral viewpoint provided a justification for colonial expansion, portraying it as an effort to bring “order and civilization” to the region.   Later, particularly in the early 20th century, geopolitical considerations regarding Burma and China gained prominence.

The British aimed at delineating unmistakable lines of demarcation among their domains in Assam and Burma and between Manipur and Burma. Dominance of the Naga Hills bordering Burma was felt to be a prerequisite to fulfill these strategic requirements and preclude possible invasions. In short, British interest in the Naga Hills was a complex one, beginning with the early necessity for strategic communication and security and progressing to the protection of economic interests, and eventually to the sense of moral obligation and geopolitical calculation.

Forging the Raj: The Step-by-Step Consolidation of British Administration.

The development of British colonial rule over the Naga Hills was a slow and recurrently violently resisted process, characterized by policy changes and reactions to unyielding Naga resistance.

Early on, the British followed a policy of non-interference in the hope of staying out of confrontation and keeping administrative expenses low. This proved in large measure ineffective as Naga attacks against British-held areas persisted unfettered. The Nagas tended to see this non-interference as a sign of British weakness and responded with more raids. Confronted by the failure of non-interference, the British moved towards a more active policy. A turning point was the decision in 1866 to post a permanent British officer at Samaguting.

This was the real beginning of direct British administrative intervention in the Naga Hills.
That. same year, the Naga Hills District was officially established as a part of British India within the Assam province, with Samaguting (now Chumukedima) as its headquarters. Captain Gregory was made the initial officer commanding the new district. In the subsequent years, the British gradually expanded their administrative grip further into the Naga Hills. Administrative headquarters were set up at Wokha in 1875 and Kohima in 1879. The annexation of the Naga Hills, formally speaking, was substantially carried out by the close of the Battle of Khonoma of 1880, an important battle which quelled a leading stronghold of Naga resistance.

The Naga Hills District kept growing, absorbing the land of different Naga tribes, such as the Lotha tract in 1875, the Ao tract in 1889, the Sümi (Sema) tracts by 1904, and the Konyak tract by 1910. The British introduced the Inner Line Permit (ILP) system to control entry into and within the Naga Hills. Derived from the Bengal Eastern Frontier Regulation of 1873, the ILP called for non-residents to procure a permit to enter the specified areas, with the main purpose being to safeguard British interests and have control over the frontier areas. The British also administratively classified the Naga Hills District as a “Backward Tract” in 1919 and subsequently as an “Excluded Area” in 1935 under the Government of India Acts. These divisions meant that the area was to be dealt with separately from the rest of British India, and the Governor of Assam would have direct control over administration.  

Timeline of Key Events in the Establishment of British Administration in the Naga Hills

The Spirit of Resistance: Naga Opposition to British Rule

The imposition and strengthening of British rule in the Naga Hills were consistently met with diverse and determined forms of resistance from various Naga tribes. From the very first encounters in the early 19th century, the Nagas displayed a strong commitment to safeguarding their independence and traditional way of life. This resistance manifested in numerous ways, including armed conflicts, raids on British-controlled territories, and later, the emergence of organized political movements.

Naga tribes, especially the Angamis, made regular incursions into British-held territory in Assam and Manipur. Such incursions were usually direct retaliations against British expansion onto their territories and claims of their historical sovereignty. The Nagas, particularly the Angamis, responded to British military forays with adept use of guerrilla warfare, utilizing their in-depth familiarity with the hilly country to counter their enemies.

Among the notable uprisings against British rule, the Angami Revolt of 1879-1880, also known as the revolt of Khonoma, stands out as a significant challenge to colonial authority. This revolt was fueled by growing discontent and resentment towards increasing British interference in Naga affairs, which threatened their traditional social hierarchy and way of life. The immediate cause of the rebellion was the assassination of the Deputy Commissioner of the Naga Hills District, Mr. G.H. Damant, and his retinue in Khonoma village in October 1879. On receipt of this news, Naga fighters besieged the British garrison at Kohima. The British struck back in turn by attacking rebel Naga villages, including even Khonoma itself. The Battle of Khonoma was especially intense and saw considerable losses on both sides. The uprising was finally quashed with the surrender of the Naga fighters in March 1880, resulting in the establishment of firm British domination of the area and the setting up of Kohima as the permanent administrative center. In addition to this great uprising, many other examples of defiance and retaliatory expeditions took place during British occupation, reflecting the consistent struggle for independence.  During the early 20th century, the character of Naga resistance started to change as organized political movements began to appear.

The establishment of the Naga Club in 1918 was an important milestone in the formulation of Naga political goals. This group, made up of educated Nagas who had fought in World War I and served in the colonial government, sought to create a sense of unity among the various Naga tribes and to promote their unique identity. In 1929, the Naga Club presented a memorandum to the Simon Commission, a British organization charged with advising on constitutional changes in India, clearly expressing their wish to be left alone to decide their future and not to be included in any plans for a future Indian government. This memorandum is commonly regarded as a seminal statement of Naga self-determination. Though the 19th-century armed resistance was eventually brought under control, it paved the way for the political awareness and organized movements of the 20th century, seeking more autonomy and self-rule.

Architecture of Control: British Administration and Its Impact on Traditional Systems

The British government in the Naga Hills was a system of control that, while typically described as one of indirect rule, significantly affected the traditional political and social life of the Naga tribes.

Subsequent to district administration, with Deputy Commissioners at the focal administrative positions, the British introduced policies and institutions to administer the country. The Inner Line Permit (ILP) regime, instituted to control entry, was also a powerful means of retaining control over the movement of resources and people within the Naga Hills. For administrative convenience, the British frequently made a distinction between “administered” and “unadministered” tracts in the Naga Hills.

The “administered” tracts were those in which the British had asserted direct rule and introduced their administrative measures, including taxation. The “unadministered” tracts, especially in the eastern reaches of the Naga Hills, were well outside British administration’s direct control until much later. This made the region unevenly developed, with the “administered” tracts having come under Western education and other aspects of colonial influence at an earlier time. To make their administration easier, the British used local intermediaries extensively, most prominently the Dobashis and Gaonburas (village headmen).

The Dobashis acted as vital interpreters and intermediaries between the British authorities and the various Naga tribes, successfully bridging linguistic and cultural divides. They also acted as important mediators in settling disputes and counseling British officers on Naga customary laws and practices. The Gaonburas, usually the traditional village chiefs or elders, were designated by the British as their representatives at the village level. They were tasked with upholding law and order, collecting taxes (house tax in most cases), and enforcing British instructions in their respective villages. In hereditary chieftainship tribes such as the Sumi, the village chief tends to become the Gaonbura. Gaonburas tended to be privileged with red blankets and house tax exemption. The inauguration of this administrative system had a considerable effect on Naga indigenous political institutions and leadership systems.  While the British tended to absorb existing chieftainships and village councils into their system, their authority and duties were frequently diminished or modified.

The implementation of the posts of Dobashis and Gaonburas introduced new patterns of power, at times replacing or co-existing with customary leadership patterns. In other cases, the traditional chiefs were even downgraded in status and power, as the British preferred the newly created intermediaries who were more directly responsible to them. The British administration also affected traditional Naga social structure and practices. The abolition of inter-village fighting and headhunting, imposed by the British, had a profound impact on social dynamics, creating a more peaceful atmosphere and promoting alliances between erstwhile warring villages.  The imposition of taxation, in the main in the guise of the house tax, affected the conventional economic system, introducing a monetized economy incrementally.

Though the British, as a rule, accepted traditional land ownership systems in most places, the imposition of new administrative frameworks and policies could not help but introduce change in the manner in which land was managed and viewed. On the whole, the British administrative system, employing on occasion local intermediaries and observing some traditional practices, effectively altered the political and social order of the Naga Hills, imposing a lasting legacy upon its governance and society.

Transformations Under the Crown: Social, Economic, and Cultural Shifts

The period of British colonial occupation brought about important social, economic, and cultural changes in the Naga Hills. Socially, the most direct and effective change was the forced abandonment of inter-village fighting and headhunting. This forced peace created a more stable situation, allowing for greater interaction and even cooperation between various Naga groups. The British perceived headhunting as a primitive practice and positively worked towards curtailing it, which ultimately helped in its eventual decline. Also, the practice of slavery in some Naga societies was terminated under British rule.  On the economic front, the imposition of taxation proved to be a turning point.

The British levied a house tax on the administered Naga areas, which was a major revenue source for the colonial government. Whereas more traditional land holding systems were largely recognized, the establishment of this new taxation system progressively integrated the Naga economy into a larger money-based system. The British also brought in the idea of commercializing crops and established a demand for hired labor from the area for sundry administrative and infrastructural works. Culturally, the coming of American Baptist missionaries during the latter part of the 19th century was a watershed in the history of the Naga Hills.  Their activities resulted in mass conversion to Christianity among the different Naga tribes.

In addition to their religious mission, the missionaries also brought Western education, opening schools that offered secular education in addition to religious instruction. To enable their evangelical mission, they established written forms of the different Naga languages in the Roman script, which helped in preserving and standardizing these languages. The penetration of Christianity and Western education transformed traditional Naga culture and identity at a fundamental level. Traditional ways and religious practices started to dwindle as the new religion set its roots.

Yet, the common Christian religion also created a sense of commonality among previously independent and occasionally warring Naga tribes and helped to form a wider pan-Naga identity. Western notions of progress, rationality, and government also had an impact on Naga thought and aspiration. Traditional social institutions, including the Morung (traditional boys’ dormitory), similarly lost their relative significance with the advent of new modes of education and social interaction. All these social, economic, and cultural transformations under British colonial rule formed the base for the shaping of modern Naga society and its later political course.

The Twilight of Empire: Factors Leading to the End of Colonial Rule

The demise of British colonial domination of the Naga Hills was directly connected with the larger struggle for Indian independence and the global weakening of the British Empire in the post-World War II period. The British government, headed by Prime Minister Clement Attlee, resolved to grant India independence, a process that reached culmination during August 1947.  Against this backdrop of emerging events, the Naga desire for self-rule acquired considerable force.

The Naga National Council (NNC), which was born out of the Naga Club in 1946, became the chief political body representing these desires.At first, the NNC wanted to protect Naga interests in an independent India with local autonomy.

Later, under the powerful leadership of the likes of A.Z. Phizo, the call for full independence started gathering momentum. On August 14, 1947, one day prior to India’s independence, the NNC pronounced Naga land as an independent state, claiming their fundamental right to self-determination and declining to accept membership in the Indian Union. During the last days of British rule, decisive negotiations between Naga leaders and the British administration were ongoing. The 9-point agreement of June 1947 was an important result of these negotiations, acknowledging the right to self-determination of the Naga after a decade. Nevertheless, differences soon cropped up regarding the interpretation of this agreement, giving rise to further complexities.  Finally, the British pullout of India in August 1947 left the issue of Naga sovereignty unsettled.

Whereas the British had imposed administrative authority over most of the Naga Hills, their withdrawal left behind a political vacuum and pushed the newly independent Indian state to deal with the deeply ingrained Naga desire for independence, a bequest that continues to mold the politics of the region.

A Lingering Shadow: The Enduring Legacy of British Colonial Rule

The legacy of British colonial occupation of the Naga Hills has been enormous and enduring, fashioning the society, culture, and politics of the area in post-colonial India. Its most enduring legacy is the continuing Naga conflict as well as the recurring demand for an independent Nagaland, an unmet legacy of the unresolved issues at India’s independence. The British administrative borders also caused the Naga ancestral homeland to be divided. Naga lands were divided between India and Myanmar, a separation that still impacts the Naga people. Within India, the Nagas were divided further into various states, such as Nagaland, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and Assam. The colonial administrative frameworks and policies, including the Inner Line Permit, are still relevant in current-day Nagaland, shaping its relationship with the rest of India. The inheritance of uneven development, as a result of the division between “administered” and “unadministered” territories under British colonial rule, persists, especially in the eastern regions of Nagaland. Although the social and political institutions of old were affected by colonial domination, most still retain importance in Naga society today.

The coming of Christianity in the colonial period has had a revolutionary and long-lasting effect on Naga identity and cohesion. It has also been pivotal in the shaping of contemporary Naga society and its ambitions.

Lastly, the repatriation of Naga ancestral remains and cultural artifacts, which were gathered by the British during colonial times and are currently kept in museums throughout Europe, continues to be a major contentious issue and an open reminder of the complicated and oftentimes exploitative nature of colonial interactions. The enduring legacy of British colonial dominion in the Naga Hills is thus a complex one, with political boundaries, cultural changes, and continued contests for identity and self-determination.

Conclusion

The history of British colonial rule in the Naga Hills is a complex and multifaceted narrative, marked by initial encounters, evolving imperial ambitions, gradual consolidation of power, persistent and valiant resistance, and profound societal transformations. Driven by a confluence of strategic, economic, and ideological motivations, the British established their authority over the region, leaving an indelible mark on traditional Naga political and social systems. While often employing indirect rule, their administration introduced new structures, policies, and cultural influences, most notably through the transformative arrival of Christianity and Western education. The Naga people, deeply rooted in their tradition of independence, mounted various forms of resistance, culminating in significant uprisings and the eventual articulation of their aspirations for self-determination. The end of British rule left unresolved issues, particularly the fundamental question of Naga sovereignty, which continues to shape the region’s intricate political landscape. The enduring legacy of colonialism includes the division of ancestral lands, the ongoing Naga conflict, the lasting influence of colonial administrative structures, and significant social and cultural changes. Understanding this pivotal historical period is essential for comprehending the contemporary challenges and aspirations of the resilient Naga people.